Posted: 18 June, 2025 Filed under: Hlengiwe Dube | Tags: #NoToHate, AI, Artificial intelligence, communication landscapes, Countering Hate Speech, cyber-harassment, cyberstalking, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa, discrimination, freedom of expression, gender equality, gender-based violence, gender-sensitive enforcement mechanisms, hate speech, hateful messages, hostility, human dignity, interconnected digital age, International Day for Countering Hate Speech, new technologies, peacebuilding, printed propaganda, sexist hate speech, UN Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech, violence, vulnerable groups
Author: Hlengiwe Dube
Centre for Human Rights, University of Pretoria
Every year on June 18, the world comes together to observe the International Day for Countering Hate Speech, a solemn reminder that words can wound deeply and sometimes irreparably. Hate speech is not a new problem. Throughout history, language has been weaponised to demean, divide, and destroy, but today, in our interconnected digital age, the scale, speed, and sophistication of hate speech’s spread are unprecedented. This is especially true in Africa, a continent marked by extraordinary diversity in ethnicity, religion, culture, and language, where hate speech can quickly inflame tensions and threaten peace. The devastating consequences of hate speech in Africa are not merely theoretical. The 1994 Rwandan genocide stands as the darkest example, where incendiary radio broadcasts and printed propaganda dehumanised the Tutsi minority, turning words into deadly action. This tragedy also became a powerful lesson in the importance of vigilance, legal safeguards, and coordinated responses to hateful rhetoric.
Emerging new technologies present opportunities and challenges in the fight against hate speech. The rise of artificial intelligence (AI) and digital platforms has transformed communication landscapes, enabling hateful messages to travel faster and reach farther than ever before. At the same time, these same technologies offer new tools for early detection and intervention. Against this backdrop, African countries, regional bodies, and international partners are navigating complex questions: How can societies protect vulnerable groups without unduly restricting freedom of expression? How can AI be harnessed responsibly to combat hate speech? And how can we empower individuals, especially youth, to stand firm against hatred?
International and Regional Framework
The United Nations (UN) has long recognised the destructive power of hate speech. The UN Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech, launched in 2019, provides a key framework for understanding and combating hateful rhetoric. It defines hate speech as any communication that attacks or discriminates against individuals or groups based on identity factors like religion, ethnicity, or gender. Significantly, the UN acknowledges that hate speech is a complex phenomenon without a single universal legal definition. While not all hate speech is prohibited under international law, incitement to discrimination, hostility, or violence is explicitly forbidden due to its dangerous consequences. The Strategy highlights how unchecked hate speech undermines peace, fuels conflict, and leads to serious human rights violations. It stresses the importance of coordinated action, at global and national levels, bringing together governments, civil society, media, and the private sector to address root causes and support victims. Education, digital literacy, and empowering individuals to stand against hate speech are central pillars of the UN’s approach. The broader impact of hate speech on peacebuilding, gender equality, and youth empowerment also features prominently in the UN’s work.
In July 2021, the UN General Assembly expanded upon its efforts to combat hate speech by adopting Resolution 75/309, which acknowledges the urgent need to address its growing global spread. The resolution underscores the role of interreligious and intercultural dialogue in promoting tolerance, social cohesion, and peace, while reaffirming the importance of freedom of expression and religion, and unequivocally condemning incitement to discrimination, hostility, or violence. It also designated 18 June as the International Day for Countering Hate Speech, encouraging Member States and stakeholders to mark the day through education, dialogue, and collective action. The resolution also draws attention to the grave threats posed by misinformation and disinformation, particularly during global crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, when distorted narratives have intensified fear, stigmatisation, and social division. It notes that the unchecked spread of false information erodes public trust, disrupts social harmony, and contributes to the escalation of hate speech. In response, the resolution calls for inclusive, multi-stakeholder strategies involving governments, international organisations, civil society, the private sector, and the media to counter these challenges. It also advocates the dissemination of accurate, timely, and accessible information, alongside investment in digital literacy, critical thinking, and public education. At the core of these efforts is a renewed commitment to upholding human rights, strengthening intercultural and interreligious understanding, and advancing peaceful, inclusive, and resilient societies at both national and global levels.
While the United Nations provides a global framework for countering hate speech, regional instruments also play a critical role in contextualising and operationalising these principles. In the African context, navigating the regulation of hate speech presents a complex challenge: it requires balancing the protection of vulnerable communities with the preservation of freedom of expression, particularly in politically sensitive or post-conflict environments. The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) has been instrumental in articulating this balance through its Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa.
Principle 23 of the Declaration mandates that states prohibit speech that advocates “national, racial, religious or other forms of discriminatory hatred” and that incites discrimination, hostility, or violence. However, it adopts a cautious and rights-based approach to enforcement. Criminal sanctions are recommended only for the most egregious cases, and even then, must be applied with regard to contextual factors such as the speaker’s intent, influence, political environment, the nature of the message, and the likelihood of imminent harm. This nuanced approach ensures that legal measures against hate speech are not used disproportionately or arbitrarily. Crucially, the Declaration also affirms that speech which is merely offensive, shocking, or uncivil does not meet the threshold for prohibition. In doing so, it seeks to preserve a vibrant public sphere where legitimate dissent and critical discourse are not chilled by overly broad or politically motivated interpretations of hate speech laws.
In addressing the evolving challenges of hate speech and gender-based violence in digital spaces, The ACHPR adopted the Resolution on the Protection of Women Against Digital Violence in Africa (ACHPR/Res. 522). The resolution addresses the growing challenge of technology-facilitated violence against women as a critical facet of hate speech and gender-based violence in digital spaces. It is rooted in the Commission’s mandate under the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the Maputo Protocol, and mandates States to establish comprehensive legislative and policy frameworks that criminalise and prevent digital violence against women, encompassing cyber-harassment, cyberstalking, sexist hate speech, and other ICT-related violations. It calls for the expansion of gender-based violence definitions to explicitly include these digital harms, and advocates for gender-sensitive enforcement mechanisms and victim support services. The resolution further emphasises the importance of evidence-based policymaking through dedicated research and data collection, public awareness initiatives aimed at dismantling harmful gender norms, and educational programs to reduce the digital gender divide by promoting women’s access to technology and participation in the ICT sector. It also recommends ongoing capacity-building for law enforcement, judicial officers, and social service providers to effectively address cases of digital violence. In recognition of particular vulnerabilities of women journalists, the resolution highlights the need for gender-sensitive media literacy, digital security training, and the repeal of overly broad surveillance laws that exacerbate their exposure to harm. Through this comprehensive, rights-based approach, ACHPR/Res. 522 advances the protection of women in Africa’s digital environment, contributing significantly to the continent’s legal framework on hate speech and digital gender-based violence.
The ACHPR’s evolving normative framework highlights the need for nuanced, rights-based responses to hate speech across Africa. As digital spaces expand and new threats emerge, regional legal instruments must continue to adapt, ensuring that protections against hate speech are effective without undermining freedom of expression. The challenge lies in translating these principles into consistent, accountable practice across diverse national contexts, with sustained commitment to inclusivity, gender sensitivity, and the rule of law.
National Approaches to Hate Speech Regulation in Africa
Across Africa, national-level implementations of hate speech regulation frameworks have produced a diverse range of outcomes shaped by each country’s historical, political, and social contexts. In Rwanda, hate speech laws are profoundly influenced by the country’s post-genocide recovery efforts, with stringent prohibitions on ethnic incitement embedded within a broader national reconciliation and peacebuilding framework. Kenya has introduced legal provisions to deter ethnic and political hate speech, especially during sensitive periods such as elections; however, these laws have occasionally been criticised for selective enforcement and political instrumentalisation, raising concerns about their impact on democratic freedoms. Nigeria’s Cybercrime Act criminalises offensive online communications but has attracted scrutiny due to ambiguous terminology that risks encroaching on freedom of expression and may be exploited for political suppression.
Similarly, South Africa’s legal approach to hate speech is anchored in its post-apartheid constitutional framework, which expressly prohibits hate speech that advocates hatred based on race, ethnicity, gender, or religion. The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act (PEPUDA) further empowers institutions to combat hate speech and promote equality, though challenges persist in balancing protection against hate speech with safeguarding free expression. In Uganda, hate speech regulation has often intersected with political dynamics, particularly around elections, with laws like the Computer Misuse Act used to curb online speech, sometimes controversially, for promoting hate or misinformation. Ghana, meanwhile, has made strides through legislative and policy measures that address hate speech, especially in the context of electoral violence and social media misuse; yet enforcement remains uneven, and debates continue over ensuring proportionality and human rights compliance.
These national experiences illustrate both the potential and complexities inherent in regulating hate speech in African societies. They highlight the critical importance of legal clarity, proportionality, adherence to human rights standards, and robust safeguards against misuse or political exploitation. Moreover, they highlight the need for context-sensitive approaches that balance protecting vulnerable groups with upholding democratic freedoms and fostering inclusive public discourse.
The Digital Explosion and the New Frontiers of Hate
In recent years, digital communication has transformed how Africans connect and share information. Mobile phones and social media platforms have revolutionised access to news, education, and social interaction. Yet, these technologies have also created new avenues for the rapid spread of hate speech. Platforms such as TikTok, WhatsApp, Facebook, and X (formerly Twitter) have become central to political campaigns, social movements, and everyday communication. However, they have also been weaponised to spread misinformation, rumours, and inflammatory rhetoric at an accelerated rate. This phenomenon is particularly acute during election seasons or periods of social tension, where tribal slurs and false accusations can escalate into violence, as seen in Kenya’s post-election unrest in 2007–08 or the recurring ethnic clashes in Ethiopia.
The challenges posed by online hate speech are compounded by the digital divide, varying literacy levels, and limited media regulation. Many users lack critical media literacy skills, making them vulnerable to manipulative content. Moreover, the algorithms that power social media platforms often promote sensational and emotionally charged posts, unintentionally amplifying divisive messages. In 2025, this challenge has become even more urgent. As UN Secretary-General António Guterres reminds us, “hate speech travels faster and farther than ever, amplified by Artificial Intelligence. Biased algorithms and digital platforms are spreading toxic content and creating new spaces for harassment and abuse.” AI-driven amplification means hate speech can now reach audiences beyond traditional geographic and linguistic barriers, intensifying its harmful effects.
The Double-Edged Sword of Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence offers promise and peril in combating hate speech. On the one hand, AI-powered tools provide valuable opportunities for early detection, monitoring, and swift removal of hateful content. By scanning vast amounts of online communication, AI can identify patterns of escalating hate speech and help authorities intervene before tensions boil over. On the other hand, AI systems often have inherent biases present in their training data, reflecting existing societal prejudices. This can result in inconsistent moderation, with some hateful messages slipping through while harmless expression is wrongly flagged and censored.
In the African context, the deployment of AI technologies is further constrained by the continent’s immense linguistic diversity. Over 2,000 languages are spoken, ranging from widely used ones like Swahili, Hausa, and Amharic to less common dialects, AI systems often struggle to function accurately due to limited linguistic data. Many existing AI models are primarily trained on global languages like English, French, or Arabic, which, although official in many African countries, do not reflect the linguistic realities of large portions of the population. For instance, in Nigeria, while English is the official language, millions primarily communicate in Yoruba, Igbo, or Hausa, for which AI tools often lack sufficient training data. Similarly, in Ethiopia, where Amharic is widely spoken, speech recognition tools still perform poorly due to underrepresentation in AI training datasets. This language gap hinders the effectiveness of AI-driven applications in areas like education, healthcare, governance, and online content moderation, making it harder to detect misinformation, hate speech, or provide inclusive digital services. Bridging this gap requires a deliberate, well-funded commitment to multilingual natural language processing (NLP) that recognises and incorporates Africa’s linguistic landscape. This includes the collection of high-quality local language corpora, the development of culturally and contextually relevant NLP models, and the promotion of inclusive AI research led by local scholars and institutions.
Youth, Education, and the #NoToHate Campaign
Amidst these high-level frameworks and technological debates, the human cost of hate speech is profound and personal. Children and youth, who are increasingly online and digitally connected, are particularly vulnerable. Exposure to hateful content can lead to bullying, trauma, and alienation, shaping their views on identity, tolerance, and belonging. The UN’s #NoToHate campaign addresses these challenges by providing age-appropriate resources for schools and communities. In recognition that standing up to hate speech can be intimidating, especially when fear of backlash silences victims and bystanders, the campaign empowers young people to recognise harmful speech and respond with kindness and courage. In the online space where hateful comments can feel overwhelming and confusing, this campaign encourages empathy and active bystander intervention. It reminds us all that while technology may amplify hate, we each have the power to counter it with positive speech and solidarity.
Why Countering Hate Speech Matters
Countering hate speech is far more than an exercise in civility, it is a fundamental necessity for protecting peace, justice, and human rights. When hate speech is allowed to spread unchecked, it dehumanises individuals and entire communities, often serving as a precursor to violence, including ethnic cleansing and genocide. Across the world and throughout history, hateful rhetoric has been used to mobilise conflict and justify atrocity. The Rwandan genocide remains one of the most sobering examples, where state-backed media broadcast messages that portrayed the Tutsi minority as subhuman, paving the way for mass murder. Similarly, in Myanmar, hate speech which proliferated online, particularly on Facebook, helped fuel brutal military campaigns against the Rohingya people. These tragedies highlight a critical lesson that hate speech is never “just talk.” It creates an enabling environment for discrimination, social fragmentation, and systemic violence. In Africa, this pattern has been visible in electoral periods marred by tribal slurs and inflammatory political speech in Kenya, xenophobic violence against foreign nationals in South Africa, and ethnic incitement surrounding the Tigray conflict in Ethiopia. If left unaddressed, such rhetoric escalates tensions and weakens democratic institutions, in addition to eroding public trust, and hampering development.
The effects of hate speech extend far beyond immediate political unrest, they ripple through every layer of society, exacerbating inequality and undermining long-term peacebuilding. The most vulnerable groups, ethnic minorities, migrants, women, LGBTQ+ individuals, and children, often bear the brunt of verbal attacks that stimulate exclusion and fear. This has psychological consequences, particularly among youth exposed to online hate, who may internalise harmful stereotypes or adopt extremist ideologies. In the digital age, where content travels faster than ever, hate speech is further amplified by artificial intelligence and social media algorithms that prioritize engagement over ethics. If regulated properly, these technologies can be harnessed for early warning, conflict prevention, and education. Countering hate speech is not only about removing harmful content, it is about creating societies rooted in dignity, inclusion, and shared humanity.
The United Nations’ Global Leadership and the 2025 Focus
The UN’s Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech highlights the importance of multi-stakeholder collaboration which entails engaging governments, civil society, academic institutions, and technology companies, in ensuring that AI is developed and applied in a manner that is transparent, accountable, and firmly anchored in human rights principles. Complementary initiatives, such as the Global Digital Compact, reflect a growing international consensus on the need for cooperative, rights-based regulatory frameworks to govern digital technologies, particularly in the context of rising online hate. For African countries, integrating these global standards into national digital governance strategies is imperative to safeguard democratic norms, promote social cohesion, and ensure inclusive participation in the digital public sphere.
In July 2021, the UN General Assembly formally acknowledged the “exponential spread and proliferation of hate speech” by adopting Resolution 75/309, which reaffirmed the value of intercultural dialogue and tolerance as means to counter discrimination and hostility. Building on the UN Strategy launched in 2019, this resolution established the International Day for Countering Hate Speech, to catalyse awareness, policy action, and educational efforts against hate-fuelled rhetoric. The 2025 observance takes on heightened significance amid the growing entanglement of hate speech with rapidly evolving digital technologies, particularly AI. The UN Secretary-General has warned of the dangers posed by “biased algorithms and digital platforms” that accelerate the dissemination of toxic content and create new avenues for harassment and abuse. This digital amplification signifies the need for innovative, rights-based approaches that address the technological and structural drivers of hate speech.
The UN Strategy continues to advocate for a holistic, multi-sectoral response that combines legal reform, ethical AI governance, digital literacy, and community-based engagement. As hate speech becomes increasingly embedded in the digital landscape, the international community is called upon not only to condemn it, but to take sustained, coordinated action to protect vulnerable populations and uphold the foundational values of dignity, equality, and freedom of expression.
Towards a Comprehensive African Response
Addressing the growing threat of hate speech across Africa demands a coordinated, multi-dimensional strategy. Legal frameworks must align with international and regional human rights standards, as articulated by the UN and the ACHPR, ensuring that restrictions are precise, proportionate, and not misused to silence legitimate expression. Regional bodies like the African Union must take a proactive role in harmonising standards, supporting institutional capacity, and facilitating cross-border collaboration. Equally important is a renewed focus on education. Expanding media and digital literacy initiatives is essential to equipping the public with the tools to navigate online spaces, identify different forms of false information, and engage responsibly. Cultivating a culture of inclusion and respect for diversity from an early age is foundational to building resilient, tolerant societies. Technology companies must also act with intensified accountability. The development of AI tools for content moderation must be grounded in transparency and tailored to Africa’s linguistic and cultural realities. Civil society, for its part, must continue to advocate for rights-based responses, expose abuses, and amplify the perspectives of historically marginalised communities. Ultimately, the responsibility to confront hate speech lies with all members of society. From educators and faith leaders to youth, journalists, and everyday citizens, everyone has a role to play in defending human dignity and promoting mutual respect.
Key Action Points for an African Response to Hate Speech
- Ensure national laws targeting hate speech conform to international and ACHPR norms, narrowly defined, proportionate, and applied without political bias.
- Strengthen collaboration through the African Union to develop continent-wide standards, share best practices, and enable cross-border enforcement mechanisms.
- Implement curricula and public campaigns that promote critical thinking, digital responsibility, and respect for diversity, starting from the primary education level.
- Encourage investment in AI systems that reflect Africa’s linguistic diversity, ensuring fair and effective moderation of online content in both major and local languages.
- Require technology companies to publicly disclose moderation practices, audit AI tools for bias, and include African voices in the design of digital governance policies.
- Provide funding and institutional support for grassroots organisations, especially those led by women and youth, to monitor, report, and counteract hate speech.
- Prioritise the protection of marginalised communities—such as ethnic minorities, LGBTQ+ individuals, and women, who are disproportionately affected by hate speech online and offline.
- Promote civic engagement and ethical digital citizenship through community initiatives that celebrate diversity, uphold dignity, and reject incitement to hatred.
Conclusion: Words Matter More Than Ever
In a digitally connected world where hate can spread instantaneously, Africa stands at a critical juncture. Confronting hate speech requires more than reactive measures, it calls for a deliberate, values-driven commitment to legal integrity, technological inclusivity, and social responsibility. Guided by normative frameworks such as the UN Strategy on Hate Speech and the ACHPR’s Declaration of Principle on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa, African states are equipped with the tools to navigate this challenge without compromising fundamental freedoms. The most powerful tool remains human agency: the capacity to choose words that heal rather than harm, to reject division, and to cultivate solidarity. As hateful rhetoric accelerates, so too must our collective resolve to meet it with principled action, empathy, and an unwavering defence of human dignity.
About the Author:
Hlengiwe Dube is an expert on information rights including freedom of expression, access to information and data protection, complemented by strong expertise of technology’s intersection with human rights. She is finalising her doctoral studies focusing on the complex dynamics of state surveillance in the context of human rights and public security. She is based at the Centre for Human Rights, University of Pretoria as a Project Manager of the Expression, Information and Digital Rights Unit, overseeing initiatives that span freedom of expression, access to information, data protection, elections, digital rights, and related themes at the nexus of democracy, technology, and human rights. Hlengiwe also extends her expertise to provide technical assistance to the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) special mechanisms on digital and information rights issues. She holds a Master’s Degree in Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa, further underpinning her depth of knowledge and commitment to advancing human rights discourse, particularly in the digital age.
